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Macy conferences
The Macy Conferences were a set of meetings of scholars from various disciplines held in New York under the direction of Frank Fremont-Smith at the Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation starting in 1941 and ending in 1960. The explicit aim of the conferences was to promote meaningful communication across scientific disciplines,〔von Foerster, H., Mead, M., & Teuber, H. L. (Eds.). (1951). ''Cybernetics: Circular causal and feedback mechanisms in biological and social systems. Transactions of the seventh conference.'' New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, p. vii〕 and restore unity to science.〔Fremont-Smith, F. (1960). The Macy Foundation conference plan. In M. Capes (Ed.), ''Communication or conflict: Conferences, their nature, dynamics and planning.'' New York: Association Press, pp. 218-19.〕 There were different sets of conferences designed to cover specific topics, for a total of 160 conferences over the 19 years this program was active;〔Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation. (1960). ''A review of activities, 1956-1960.'' New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, p. 7〕 the phrase "Macy conference" does not apply only to those on cybernetics, although it is sometimes used that way informally by those familiar only with that set of events. Disciplinary isolation within medicine was viewed as particularly problematic by the Macy Foundation, and given that their mandate was to aid medical research, they decided to do something about it.〔von Foerster, H., Mead, M., & Teuber, H. L. (Eds.). (1952). ''Cybernetics: Circular causal and feedback mechanisms in biological and social systems. Transactions of the eighth conference.'' New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, p. vii.〕 Thus other topics covered in different sets of conferences included: aging, adrenal cortex, biological antioxidants, blood clotting, blood pressure, connective tissues, infancy and childhood, liver injury, metabolic interrelations, nerve impulse, problems of consciousness, and renal function.〔von Foerster, H., Mead, M., & Teuber, H. L. (Eds.). (1951). ''Cybernetics: Circular causal and feedback metchanisms in biological and social systems. Transactions of the seventh Conference.'' New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, p. 7〕
== Overview ==
The Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation developed two innovations specifically designed to encourage and facilitate interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary exchanges; one was oral: the Macy conferences, and one was written: the Macy transactions (published transcriptions of the conferences). Macy conferences were essentially conversations held in a conference setting, with participants presenting research while it was still in process (rather than after it had been completed). These were more formal than conversations (papers were prepared ahead of time and circulated) but less formal than conferences. Macy transactions were transcriptions widely circulated to those who could not attend. These were far more informal than typical proceedings, which publish revised versions of conference papers, and served to invite additional scholars into the exchange. The explicit goal was to let a wider audience hear the experts exchange ideas and think out loud about their own work.〔Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation (1955). "The conference program". ''Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation 1930-1955: A review of activities.'' New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation. p. 23.〕 But even participants themselves found the transactions valuable, as a way to prompt memories, and to catch comments they might have missed.〔Schaffner, B. (Ed.). (1956). ''Group processes: Transactions of the second conference.'' New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, p. 13.〕 A few comments were made explicitly referring to later publication of the conference discussions, so clearly participants took this into account. However, Fremont-Smith explicitly stated that actual discussion should always take priority.〔von Foerster, H., Mead, M., & Teuber, H. L. (Eds.). (1950). ''Cybernetics: Circular causal and feedback mechanisms in biological and social systems. Transactions of the sixth conference.'' New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, pp. 9-10.〕
Participants were leading scientists from a wide range of fields. Casual recollections of several participants as well as published comments in the Transactions volumes stress the communicative difficulties in the beginning of each set of conferences, giving way to the gradual establishment of a common language powerful enough to communicate the intricacies of the various fields of expertise present. Participants were deliberately chosen for their willingness to engage in interdisciplinary conversations, or for having formal training in multiple disciplines, and many brought relevant past experiences (gained either from earlier Macy conferences or other venues). As participants became more secure in their ability to understand one another over the course of a set of conferences on a single topic, their willingness to think outside their own specializations meant that creativity increased.〔von Foerster, H., Mead, M., & Teuber, H. L. (Eds.). (1954). ''Cybernetics: Circular causal and feedback mechanisms in biological and social systems. Transactions of the tenth Conference.'' New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, p. 12.〕
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